Vasudeva Kanva (founded after killing last Shunga king)
Short-lived; Brahmin dynasty; replaced by Satavahanas
Satavahana
230 BCE – 220 CE
Simuka (founder), Satakarni I, Gautamiputra Satakarni, Yajna Sri Satakarni
Greatest post-Mauryan dynasty in Deccan; Nasik, Amaravati; used Prakrit; epithet "Ekabrahmana" — patronised Brahmins
1.2 Kushana Empire & Gandhara Art High Frequency
📌 Kanishka (78 CE – ~101 CE): Greatest Kushana ruler. Possibly started the Saka Era (78 CE) — India's National Calendar. Capital: Purushapura (Peshawar, Pakistan). Held 4th Buddhist Council in Kashmir. Patronised Gandhara Art and Mathura Art. Court adorned by scholars: Ashvaghosha (poet — wrote Buddhacharita), Nagarjuna (philosopher), Charaka (physician — Charaka Samhita), Vasumitra (headed 4th Buddhist Council).
🎨 Gandhara Art (Greco-Buddhist)
Location: NW India (Afghanistan, Pakistan — ancient Gandhara)
Blend of Greek (Hellenistic) and Buddhist art
First depiction of Buddha in human form (previously shown by symbols: footprints, Bodhi tree, wheel)
Buddha has Greek features: wavy hair, toga-like drapery, muscular body
Grey schist stone used
Also called Greco-Buddhist or Greco-Roman art
🎨 Mathura Art (Indian)
Location: Mathura, Uttar Pradesh
Purely Indian tradition — no foreign influence
Buddha in Indian form: shaved head, thin transparent robe, Indian features
Red sandstone (spotted) used
Flourished under both Kushana and Gupta periods
Also depicted Jain Tirthankaras and Hindu gods
🔺 Exam Trap:Gandhara art = Greek influence, Buddha in human form for the FIRST TIME. Mathura art = purely Indian. Amaravati art (Satavahana period, Andhra) = another school — limestone, marble, narrative panels. The "Amaravati School" is often a trick option for questions about Gandhara/Mathura. Don't confuse.
Converted to Buddhism; Milindapanha (Nagasena's dialogue with Menander). Introduced gold/silver coins with bilingual inscriptions (Greek + Kharoshthi)
Sakas (Scythians)
90 BCE – 400 CE
Rudradaman I
Junagarh Rock Inscription (earliest Sanskrit inscription of political nature); repaired Sudarshana Lake (Kathiawar)
Parthians (Pahlavas)
~19 BCE – 45 CE
Gondophernes
Associated with St. Thomas (Christianity reached India); brief presence in NW India
Kushanas
1st–3rd century CE
Kujula Kadphises, Vima Kadphises, Kanishka
Connected Silk Route; patronised Buddhism, Gandhara art; Saka Era (78 CE)
2. Sangam Age (300 BCE – 300 CE)
📌 Sangam Literature: Tamil literary academies (Sangams) produced classical Tamil literature. Three Sangams — the first two are legendary; the Third Sangam at Madurai is historically attested. Texts include Tolkappiyam (earliest Tamil grammar), the Ettutogai (Eight Anthologies) and Pattupattu (Ten Idylls), and the twin epics Silappadikaram and Manimekalai.
👑 Three Kingdoms of Sangam
Cheras — Kerala; capital Vanji (Karur); symbol: Bow and Arrow; sea trade with Rome; famous for spices, cotton
Cholas — Tamil Nadu; capital Uraiyur; symbol: Tiger; trade centre; ruled Kaveri delta
Pandyas — Southern Tamil Nadu; capital Madurai; symbol: Fish; pearl fishery; trade with Rome and Greece
⚓ Sangam Trade
Flourishing trade with Rome and Greece
Roman gold coins found in abundance in South India
Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (Greek text) mentions these ports
3. Gupta Empire — "Golden Age of India" (320–550 CE)
📌 Overview: Founded by Sri Gupta. The empire reached its zenith under Chandragupta I, Samudragupta, and Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). The Gupta era is called India's Golden Age due to extraordinary achievements in science, mathematics, astronomy, medicine, art, and literature.
3.1 Key Gupta Rulers High Priority PYQ
Ruler
Period
Title
Key Facts
Sri Gupta
~240–280 CE
—
Founded the dynasty; small kingdom in Magadha
Chandragupta I
320–335 CE
Maharajadhiraja
Married Lichchhavi princess Kumaradevi; issued gold coins; started Gupta Era (320 CE)
Samudragupta
335–380 CE
Kaviraja, Indian Napoleon
Allahabad Pillar inscription (Harisena); conquered most of India; played Veena; Ashvamedha yagnas performed
Chandragupta II
380–415 CE
Vikramaditya
Fa-Hien visited; Navaratra (9 gems at court); iron pillar of Delhi; defeated Sakas; peak of Gupta power; Ujjain as 2nd capital
Kumaragupta I
415–455 CE
Mahendraditya
Founded Nalanda University
Skandagupta
455–467 CE
—
Repelled Huna invasion; last great Gupta ruler; empire declined after him
3.2 Gupta Golden Age — Science, Literature & Art Frequently Tested
🔢
Mathematics
Aryabhata, Brahmagupta
Aryabhata (476–550 CE): Concept of zero, value of π (3.1416), Earth rotates on axis, solar/lunar eclipses explained. Wrote Aryabhatiya. Brahmagupta: Rules of operations with zero.
Zero conceptπ valueAryabhatiya
⭐
Astronomy
Aryabhata, Varahamihira
Aryabhata proved Earth is spherical and rotates. Varahamihira: Pancha Siddhantika, Brihat Samhita, Brihat Jataka — astronomy, astrology, natural phenomena.
Earth's rotationSpherical Earth
💊
Medicine
Charaka, Sushruta, Dhanvantari
Charaka Samhita: Internal medicine (written earlier, but codified in Gupta era context). Sushruta Samhita: Surgery — rhinoplasty (nose reconstruction), cataract surgery; "Father of Surgery."
Father of SurgeryCharaka
📚
Literature
Kalidasa & others
Kalidasa (greatest Sanskrit poet): Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, Kumarsambhava. Court of Chandragupta II. Other authors: Vishakhadatta (Mudrarakshasa), Amarsimha (Amarakosha lexicon).
SakuntalaMeghaduta
🏛
Architecture
Nagara style begins
Development of Nagara (North Indian) temple style. Dashavatara temple (Deogarh, UP). Udayagiri Caves (MP — Varaha panel). Iron Pillar of Delhi (Qutub Minar complex) — rust-free marvel.
Nagara styleIron Pillar
🎨
Painting — Ajanta
Buddhist cave paintings
Ajanta Caves (Maharashtra): Phases 1 (Satavahana) and 2 (Gupta). Gupta-era paintings show graceful human forms. Tempera technique (not fresco). Buddhist Jataka stories depicted.
Ajanta CavesTempera
📐 Gupta Empire — Navaratra (Nine Gems) of Chandragupta II
💡 Fa-Hien's Visit (399–414 CE): Chinese Buddhist pilgrim Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited India during Chandragupta II's reign. He documented the prosperous state of the Gupta Empire — no crime, good roads, good hospitals. He visited Bodh Gaya, Sarnath, Kushinagar. His account = Fo-kuo-chi (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms). Hieun Tsang (Xuanzang) visited much later during Harsha's reign (7th century CE).
4. Later Dynasties (Post-Gupta)
4.1 Harshavardhana (606–647 CE)
📌 Key Facts: King of Kanauj (UP). Defeated by Pulakesin II of Chalukyas (South India — only defeat). Chinese pilgrim Hieun Tsang (Xuanzang) visited his court and wrote Si-yu-ki. Harsha's court poet Banabhatta wrote Harshacharita (biography) and Kadambari. Harsha himself wrote three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Priyadarshika, Nagananda. Organized Kumbh-like assembly at Prayag and Kannauj. Great patron of learning — founded many rest houses and hospitals.
🔺 Nalanda University: Founded by Kumaragupta I (Gupta dynasty). Reached peak under Harsha's patronage. Hieun Tsang studied here. Had 10,000 students, 2,000 teachers. Subjects: Buddhism, Vedas, Logic, Medicine, Sanskrit. Destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (1193 CE). Note: Hieun Tsang studied at Nalanda — this is a common PYQ point.
4.2 Chalukyas, Pallavas & Rashtrakutas
Dynasty
Base
Notable Ruler
Architecture / Key Fact
Chalukyas of Badami
Karnataka (Vatapi/Badami)
Pulakesin II (defeated Harsha, defeated by Narasimhavarman Pallava)
Cave temples at Badami, Aihole (cradle of temple architecture), Pattadakal (UNESCO heritage)
Pallavas
Tamil Nadu (Kanchipuram)
Mahendravarman I, Narasimhavarman I (Mamalla)
Shore Temple (Mahabalipuram), Rathas (Pancha Pandava Rathas); Dravidian temple style developed; defeated Pulakesin II
Rashtrakutas
Deccan (Manyakheta, Karnataka)
Dantidurga (founder), Amoghavarsha, Krishna I
Kailasa Temple, Ellora (carved from single rock — largest monolithic structure; dedicated to Shiva); greatest rock-cut architecture
🟢 Architecture Trick:Pallava → Dravidian style begins (shore temple, rathas). Chalukya → transitional (Badami caves, Aihole). Rashtrakuta → Kailasa Temple Ellora (greatest rock-cut). Chola → Brihadeeswara, Gangaikonda Cholapuram (mature Dravidian). Keep these separate — they are repeatedly confused in CDS!
4.3 Chola Empire High Frequency
👑 Raja Raja I (985–1014 CE)
Built Brihadeeswara Temple (Thanjavur, Tamil Nadu) — dedicated to Shiva; UNESCO World Heritage Site
Also called Rajarajeshwara Temple
Example of mature Dravidian architecture
Conquered Sri Lanka, Maldives
Strong naval power; sea trade with Southeast Asia
Village administration: Gram Sabha/Ur/Nadu system
👑 Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE)
Son of Raja Raja I; greatest Chola ruler
Title: Gangaikonda Chola — led military expedition to Ganges
Built new capital: Gangaikonda Cholapuram
Built Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple (Ariyalur, TN)
Naval expedition to Southeast Asia (Srivijaya kingdom, Malaya)
The Kailasa Temple (Cave 16) at Ellora, Maharashtra, was built by the Rashtrakuta king Krishna I (8th century CE). It is the largest monolithic rock-cut structure in the world — carved top-down from a single basalt cliff. Dedicated to Shiva. Ellora has 34 caves: Buddhist (1–12), Hindu (13–29), and Jain (30–34). Chalukyas built Badami/Aihole. Pallavas built Shore Temple. Cholas built Brihadeeswara.
Q2. Who among the following is associated with the concept of zero and the calculation of the value of π? PYQ Type
Aryabhata (born 476 CE, Pataliputra) wrote Aryabhatiya. He calculated π ≈ 3.1416 (remarkably accurate), explained that the Earth rotates on its axis (not the sun moving), and explained solar/lunar eclipses scientifically. Brahmagupta later formalised operations with zero (including 0÷0). Varahamihira wrote on astronomy. Bhaskara (12th century) came much later. Aryabhata is the dominant answer for "zero" and "π" in CDS.
Q3. Fa-Hien, the Chinese Buddhist pilgrim, visited India during the reign of: PYQ Type
Fa-Hien (Faxian) visited India during 399–414 CE, during the reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya). He wrote Fo-kuo-chi (Record of Buddhist Kingdoms). He described Pataliputra, hospitals, and the prosperity of Gupta India. Hieun Tsang (Xuanzang) visited during Harsha's reign (629–645 CE) — this is the most common confusion! Always distinguish: Fa-Hien = Gupta (Chandragupta II); Hieun Tsang = Harsha.
Q4. The Brihadeeswara Temple at Thanjavur was built by which Chola ruler? PYQ Type
(A) Rajendra I(B) Raja Raja I(C) Parantaka I(D) Kulottunga I
✔ Answer: (B) Raja Raja I
Raja Raja I (985–1014 CE) built the Brihadeeswara Temple (also called Rajarajeshwara Temple) at Thanjavur (Tanjore), Tamil Nadu. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and the finest example of mature Dravidian architecture. The vimana (tower) is 66m tall — one of the tallest of its time. Dedicated to Shiva. Rajendra I (his son) built the Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple at Ariyalur. This distinction is very commonly tested.
Q5. The Gandhara school of art is a blend of which two artistic traditions? ⚠ Tricky
(A) Indian and Chinese(B) Greek (Hellenistic) and Buddhist Indian(C) Persian and Indian(D) Roman and Jain
✔ Answer: (B) Greek (Hellenistic) and Buddhist Indian
The Gandhara school developed in the Gandhara region (modern Afghanistan and Pakistan) and represents a fusion of Greek (Hellenistic) artistic style with Buddhist iconography. It was patronised by the Kushana kings (especially Kanishka). Distinctive features: Buddha with wavy (Greek) hair, toga-like drapery, Apollonian features, grey schist stone. This school first depicted Buddha in human form (earlier, he was shown symbolically). Often called "Greco-Buddhist" art.
Q6. Hieun Tsang visited India during the reign of Harshavardhana and studied at which university? PYQ Type
(A) Taxila(B) Vikramashila(C) Nalanda(D) Vallabhi
✔ Answer: (C) Nalanda
Hieun Tsang (Xuanzang) studied at Nalanda University (Bihar) for about 5 years. He was taught by the great scholar Silabhadra. He returned to China with 657 Sanskrit texts. His account Si-yu-ki is invaluable for understanding 7th-century India. Nalanda was founded by Kumaragupta I of the Gupta dynasty and had 10,000 students. Taxila was a pre-Mauryan university (NW India). Vikramashila was a later (Pala dynasty) centre.
Q7. Rajendra I of the Chola dynasty is known as "Gangaikonda Chola" because: ⚠ Tricky
(A) He built a temple on the Ganga river banks(B) He led a victorious military expedition to the Ganga region(C) He was born near the Ganga(D) He defeated the Gupta rulers of the Ganga valley
✔ Answer: (B) He led a victorious military expedition to the Ganga region
Rajendra I (1014–1044 CE) led a celebrated northward military campaign up to the river Ganga (Bengal) and carried sacred Ganga water back to his capital. As a mark of this achievement, he took the title Gangaikonda Chola (Chola who conquered the Ganga). He built a new capital city named Gangaikonda Cholapuram (Ariyalur district, Tamil Nadu) and a magnificent temple there — comparable to Brihadeeswara. He also launched a naval expedition to the Srivijaya kingdom (Sumatra, Malaya).
Q8. Samudragupta was called the "Indian Napoleon" by which historian? ⚠ Tricky
Vincent Arthur Smith, a British historian, called Samudragupta the "Napoleon of India" in reference to his remarkable military campaigns across virtually the entire subcontinent. The Allahabad Pillar Inscription (composed by his court poet Harisena) records his conquests in detail. Samudragupta was also a scholar and poet — called Kaviraja. He is depicted playing the Veena on gold coins. This is a fairly frequent CDS question — the "who said it" is the tricky element.
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