ENV01 — Parts of Speech & Terminology
📚 Chapter ENV01 · CDS Vocabulary LevelCDS Level
📌 Two Question Types in Exams:
Type 1 — Sentence + underlined word: A sentence is given with one word underlined. Identify its part of speech in that specific context. The same word can be different parts of speech in different sentences.
Type 2 — Single word by suffix/form: A single word is given. Identify its part of speech from its form and ending. No sentence needed.
Type 3 — Terminology: “What type of pronoun is ‘it’ in ‘It is raining’?” Tests knowledge of sub-categories, not just the main POS.
💡 Core Identification Rule: Always ask these questions in order:
1. Is it naming something? → Noun
2. Is it replacing a noun? → Pronoun
3. Is it describing a noun/pronoun? → Adjective
4. Is it showing action or state? → Verb
5. Is it modifying a verb/adjective/adverb? → Adverb
6. Is it showing relationship between nouns? → Preposition
7. Is it joining words or clauses? → Conjunction
PART A — IDENTIFYING POS FROM SENTENCES
A1 Adjective vs Adverb — The Most Tested Distinction
The only question to ask: What does this word modify?
• Modifies a noun or pronoun → Adjective
• Modifies a verb, adjective, or another adverb → Adverb
Identify the part of speech of the underlined word
The wounded soldier crawled to safety.
ADJ Adjective — “wounded” modifies the noun “soldier” (which soldier? → the wounded one).
Identify the part of speech of the underlined word
He fought bravely against the enemy.
ADV Adverb — “bravely” modifies the verb “fought” (fought how? → bravely).
Identify the part of speech of the underlined word
The rapid advance caught the enemy by surprise.
ADJ Adjective — “rapid” modifies the noun “advance”. Note: “rapidly” would be the adverb form.
Identify the part of speech of the underlined word
She is extremely diligent in her duties.
ADV Adverb — “extremely” modifies the adjective “diligent” (how diligent? → extremely). Adverbs can modify adjectives.
Identify the part of speech of the underlined word
The sleeping recruit did not hear the alarm.
ADJ Adjective — “sleeping” is a present participle used as an adjective, modifying “recruit”. Not a verb here because it is not part of a verb phrase (no auxiliary).
⚠ The Participle Trap — Most Common Trick Question:
A participle (V-ing or V3) can be either a verb or an adjective:
• “He was wounded in battle.” → Verb (part of passive verb phrase: was wounded)
• “The wounded soldier rested.” → Adjective (modifies soldier; no auxiliary before it)
Test: Is there an auxiliary (is/was/has/had/will/be) before it? → Verb. Does it stand alone before a noun? → Adjective.
A2 Gerund vs Participle vs Infinitive — Verb Forms as Other POS
All three come from verbs but function as other parts of speech. CDS tests this distinction extensively.
Gerund — V-ing as Noun
- Acts as a noun (subject/object)
- Swimming is good exercise.
Subject of sentence → Noun
- He enjoys reading.
Object of verb → Noun
- Ask: Can you replace it with “it” or “a thing”? Yes → Gerund
Participle — V-ing/V3 as Adjective
- Modifies a noun (adjective role)
- The running water was cold.
Modifies “water” → Adjective
- The exhausted platoon rested.
Modifies “platoon” → Adjective
- Ask: Does it describe a noun? Yes → Participle (Adj)
Infinitive — “to + V” as Noun/Adj/Adv
- To serve is an honour.
Subject → Noun
- He wants to lead.
Object → Noun
- He ran to escape.
Modifies “ran” (why?) → Adverb
- The order to advance was given.
Modifies “order” → Adjective
Identify the POS of the underlined word
Marching for hours in full kit builds endurance.
NOUN Gerund — “Marching” is the subject of “builds”. Replace: “It builds endurance” ✓ → Noun (Gerund).
Identify the POS of the underlined word
The marching band entered the parade ground.
ADJ Participle used as Adjective — “marching” modifies “band”. Which band? The marching one.
Identify the POS of the underlined word
He trained daily to qualify for the selection.
ADV Infinitive used as Adverb — “to qualify” modifies the verb “trained” (trained for what purpose? → to qualify).
A3 Preposition vs Adverb — Same Word, Different POS
Key rule from ECG07: If the word has a noun/pronoun as its object immediately after it → Preposition. If it stands alone without an object → Adverb.
Identify the POS of 'down' in each sentence
(i) He climbed down the ladder. (ii) Prices came down.
(i) PREP Preposition — “the ladder” is the object of “down”. (ii) ADV Adverb — no object after “down”; it modifies the verb “came”.
Identify the POS of 'before'
(i) Think carefully before you speak. (ii) I have met him before.
(i) CONJ Conjunction — followed by a full clause (you speak). (ii) ADV Adverb — stands alone, no object, no clause.
PART B — SUFFIX-BASED POS IDENTIFICATION
B1 Identify POS from the Word Form (Suffix)
When no sentence is given, the suffix is the signal. Exam questions give a single word and ask: “What part of speech is IMPETUOUS / BRILLIANCE / RECTIFY?” The answer comes from the word ending.
Noun Suffixes
-tion, -sion
-ness, -ity
-ment, -age
-ance, -ence
-ism, -ist
-ery, -ry
-ship, -hood
-ure, -ure
Adjective Suffixes
-ous, -ious
-ful, -less
-al, -ial
-ible, -able
-ic, -ical
-ive, -ative
-ary, -ory
-ish, -ent, -ant
Adverb Suffixes
-ly (mostly)
-ward(s)
-wise
-fold
Note: friendly, lovely, elderly, lonely = adjectives (describe nouns)
Verb Suffixes
-ise / -ize
-ify, -fy
-ate
-en
-esce
Note: -ed/-ing forms can be adj/verb depending on use
Word Family Practice — Same Root, Different POS TYPE 2 QUESTIONS
⚠ The “-ly” Trap — Not all -ly words are adverbs:
These are adjectives despite ending in “-ly” (they describe nouns):
friendly, lovely, lonely, lively, elderly, cowardly, manly, orderly, timely, scholarly, likely, unlikely, deadly, costly, beastly, leisurely, masterly, brotherly
Test: Can the word come before a noun? “A friendly officer” ✓ → Adjective.
Note: “He answered briefly” — briefly = adverb (modifies answered).
Q1. Identify the part of speech of the underlined word: “The sleeping guard did not hear the alarm.”
- (a) Verb
- (b) Noun
- (c) Adjective
- (d) Adverb
Answer: (c) Adjective
(a) Wrong: ‘sleeping’ has no auxiliary before it (is/was/were); it is not a verb phrase. (b) Wrong: it does not name anything. (d) Wrong: it does not modify a verb. (c) Correct: ‘Sleeping’ is a present participle used as an adjective, modifying the noun ‘guard’ (which guard? → the sleeping one). If the sentence were ‘The guard was sleeping’, then ‘sleeping’ would be a verb.
Q2. What part of speech is the word RECTIFY?
- (a) Noun
- (b) Adjective
- (c) Adverb
- (d) Verb
Answer: (d) Verb
(a) Wrong: noun suffixes are -tion/-ness/-ity; ‘rectify’ does not end in any noun suffix. (b) Wrong: adjective suffixes are -ous/-ful/-ible/-al. (c) Wrong: adverb suffix is -ly. (d) Correct: The suffix ‘-ify’ creates verbs (rectify, magnify, simplify, identify, classify). Rectify = to correct or put right.
Q3. What part of speech is the word IMPETUOUS?
- (a) Noun
- (b) Verb
- (c) Adjective
- (d) Adverb
Answer: (c) Adjective
(a) Wrong: not a naming word; has no noun suffix. (b) Wrong: no verb suffix (-ify/-ise/-ate/-en). (d) Wrong: does not end in -ly/-ward/-wise. (c) Correct: The suffix ‘-ous’ creates adjectives (impetuous, courageous, audacious, callous, perilous). Impetuous = acting rashly without thought.
Q4. Identify the part of speech of the underlined word: “She was chosen to lead the mission.”
- (a) Verb
- (b) Noun
- (c) Adverb
- (d) Adjective
Answer: (b) Noun (Infinitive)
(a) Wrong: ‘to lead’ is not the finite verb of the sentence; ‘was chosen’ is. (c) Wrong: it does not modify the verb ‘chosen’ (she was chosen why? → no, it is the object of ‘chosen’). (d) Wrong: it does not modify a noun. (b) Correct: ‘To lead’ is an infinitive functioning as a Noun — it is the object of ‘chosen’ (she was chosen for what? → to lead).
Q5. What part of speech is the word BRILLIANCE?
- (a) Adjective
- (b) Noun
- (c) Verb
- (d) Adverb
Answer: (b) Noun
(a) Wrong: ‘brilliant’ is the adjective form (suffix -ant). (c) Wrong: no verb suffix. (d) Wrong: no adverb suffix. (b) Correct: The suffix ‘-ance’ creates abstract nouns (brilliance, alliance, tolerance, elegance, relevance). Brilliance = the quality of being brilliant.
Q6. Identify the POS of ‘friendly’ in: “The friendly officer greeted the cadets.”
- (a) Adverb
- (b) Verb
- (c) Adjective
- (d) Conjunction
Answer: (c) Adjective
(a) Wrong: the common trap — ‘friendly’ ends in ‘-ly’ but is NOT an adverb. Test: it comes before the noun ‘officer’ and describes it → adjective. (b) Wrong: no verb role. (d) Wrong: it does not join clauses. (c) Correct: ‘Friendly’ modifies the noun ‘officer’ → Adjective. Other -ly adjectives: lovely, elderly, cowardly, orderly, scholarly.
PART C — GRAMMAR TERMINOLOGY
C1 Types of Nouns
NOUN TYPES — All 6 types tested in exams
Proper Noun
Names a specific person, place, or thing. Always capitalised.
Delhi, Arjun, Himalayas, India Gate
Common Noun
Names any person, place, or thing of a class. Not capitalised.
soldier, city, regiment, mountain
Collective Noun
Names a group or collection of things/people as one unit.
army, fleet, jury, committee, crew, herd, galaxy (of stars)
Abstract Noun
Names a quality, state, or concept — cannot be seen or touched.
courage, discipline, freedom, honesty, anger, wisdom
Compound Noun
Two or more words combined to form a single noun.
headquarters, airstrip, commanding officer, court martial
Countable Noun
Can be counted; has singular and plural forms.
soldier/soldiers, battle/battles, officer/officers
Uncountable Noun
Cannot be counted; has no plural form; takes singular verb.
courage, information, equipment, ammunition, luggage
Concrete Noun
Can be physically perceived by the senses.
rifle, helmet, tank, bridge, flag
Identify the type of noun: 'The army crossed the river at dawn.'
ARMY — Collective Noun
NOUN Collective Noun — “army” refers to a group of soldiers treated as one unit. Note: collective nouns can take singular or plural verbs depending on whether the group acts as one or as individuals.
Identify the type of noun: 'Courage is the hallmark of every soldier.'
COURAGE — Abstract Noun
NOUN Abstract Noun — “courage” is a quality that cannot be physically seen or touched. Other abstract nouns: discipline, loyalty, patriotism, honour, morale.
C2 Types of Pronouns — Full Classification
PRONOUN TYPES — All types tested, including recent additions
Personal Pronoun
Refers to specific persons/things. Has three persons and case forms.
I, me, we, us (1st); you (2nd); he, him, she, her, it, they, them (3rd)
Possessive Pronoun
Shows ownership. Stands alone (unlike possessive adjectives).
mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs — “This book is mine.”
Reflexive Pronoun
Object refers back to the subject. Ends in -self/-selves.
myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself, ourselves, themselves
Emphatic Pronoun
Same form as reflexive but emphasises the noun, not reflects back.
“The General himself inspected the unit.” (emphasis, not reflection)
Relative Pronoun
Introduces a relative clause; relates to an antecedent.
who (person-subject), whom (person-object), which (thing), that (person/thing), whose (possession)
Interrogative Pronoun
Used to ask questions. Similar form to relative but asks.
Who?, Whom?, Which?, What?, Whose?
Demonstrative Pronoun
Points to specific nouns.
this, that, these, those — “This is the plan.”
Indefinite Pronoun
Refers to non-specific persons or things.
one, some, any, none, all, each, few, many, nobody, everyone, something
Distributive Pronoun
Refers to persons/things one at a time. Always singular.
each, either, neither — “Each of the soldiers was briefed.”
Reciprocal Pronoun
Expresses mutual action or relationship.
each other (two people), one another (more than two) — “They supported each other.”
Impersonal Pronoun IT
‘It’ used when there is no real subject; refers to weather, time, distance, or situation. Most recently tested type.
“It is raining.” / “It is five o’clock.” / “It is cold today.”
⚠ Reflexive vs Emphatic — Same Word, Different Type:
Reflexive: The action reflects back on the subject. Remove it → sentence is incomplete or changes meaning.
He hurt himself. (Remove ‘himself’ → ‘He hurt’ — incomplete/different) → Reflexive
Emphatic: The pronoun emphasises the noun. Remove it → sentence is still complete, just less emphatic.
The General himself announced the order. (Remove ‘himself’ → ‘The General announced the order’ — still complete) → Emphatic
⚠ Impersonal ‘IT’ — The Newest Tested Type:
When ‘it’ refers to no specific noun but to weather, time, distance, or a general situation, it is called an Impersonal Pronoun.
• “It is raining heavily over the Siachen glacier.” → Impersonal (no real subject)
• “It is 0600 hours.” → Impersonal (time)
• “It is 20 km to the forward post.” → Impersonal (distance)
Compare with Personal ‘it’: “The rifle is heavy. It weighs 4 kg.” → Personal (refers to ‘rifle’)
Q7. What type of noun is ‘courage’ in: “Courage is the hallmark of a soldier”?
- (a) Proper Noun
- (b) Abstract Noun
- (c) Collective Noun
- (d) Compound Noun
Answer: (b) Abstract Noun
(a) Wrong: ‘courage’ is not the name of a specific person, place, or organisation; proper nouns are capitalised. (c) Wrong: collective nouns name groups (army, fleet, committee). (d) Wrong: compound nouns are formed from two+ words. (b) Correct: Abstract nouns name qualities, states, or concepts that cannot be physically perceived. Courage, discipline, loyalty, morale, honour are all abstract nouns.
Q8. Identify the type of pronoun ‘IT’ in: “It is raining heavily in the valley.”
- (a) Personal Pronoun
- (b) Demonstrative Pronoun
- (c) Impersonal Pronoun
- (d) Reflexive Pronoun
Answer: (c) Impersonal Pronoun
(a) Wrong: personal pronoun ‘it’ refers to a specific noun (e.g., “The gun is heavy; it weighs 4 kg”). Here, no specific noun is referred to. (b) Wrong: demonstrative pronouns are this/that/these/those. (d) Wrong: reflexive pronouns end in -self/-selves. (c) Correct: When ‘it’ has no real antecedent and refers to weather, time, or a situation, it is an Impersonal Pronoun (also called Dummy Subject).
Q9. In “The General himself addressed the troops”, the word ‘himself’ is:
- (a) Reflexive Pronoun
- (b) Emphatic Pronoun
- (c) Personal Pronoun
- (d) Interrogative Pronoun
Answer: (b) Emphatic Pronoun
(a) Wrong: reflexive = action reflects back to subject. Remove ‘himself’ → “The General addressed the troops” remains perfectly complete → not reflexive. (c) Wrong: personal pronouns are I/he/she/they etc. (d) Wrong: interrogative pronouns ask questions. (b) Correct: When removing the -self pronoun does not change the sentence’s completeness, it is Emphatic. Here it stresses that the General personally did it (not through a subordinate).
Q10. What type of pronoun is ‘each other’ in: “The two units supported each other during the operation”?
- (a) Distributive Pronoun
- (b) Indefinite Pronoun
- (c) Reciprocal Pronoun
- (d) Relative Pronoun
Answer: (c) Reciprocal Pronoun
(a) Wrong: distributive pronouns are each/either/neither (refer to persons one at a time). (b) Wrong: indefinite pronouns refer to non-specific persons (someone, nobody). (d) Wrong: relative pronouns introduce clauses (who, which, that). (c) Correct: Reciprocal pronouns express mutual action between parties. ‘Each other’ = two parties; ‘one another’ = more than two parties.
C3 Types of Adjectives
ADJECTIVE TYPES
Descriptive (Qualitative)
Describes a quality or characteristic of a noun.
brave soldier, rapid advance, heavy artillery
Quantitative
Indicates the quantity (amount, not number).
some, much, little, enough, all, no — “He showed little hesitation.”
Numeral
Indicates number or order.
Definite (three soldiers); Indefinite (few, many); Ordinal (first, second)
Demonstrative
Points to a specific noun. Same words as demonstrative pronouns but followed by noun.
this plan, that order, these troops, those hills
Possessive
Shows ownership. Placed before noun (unlike possessive pronoun).
my regiment, his rifle, our position, their strategy
Interrogative
Used in questions about a noun.
Which unit? What order? Whose fault? — followed by a noun
Proper Adjective
Derived from a proper noun; describes nationality/origin.
Indian Army, Chinese strategy, British military doctrine
Distributive
Refers to each member of a group separately.
each soldier, every recruit, either option, neither side
Demonstrative Pronoun vs Demonstrative Adjective — same word, different POS:
• “This is the plan.” → Demonstrative Pronoun (stands alone, replacing a noun)
• “This plan is excellent.” → Demonstrative Adjective (followed by a noun, modifying it)
The test: Is a noun immediately after it? Yes → Adjective. Does it stand alone? → Pronoun.
C4 Types of Verbs
VERB TYPES — Functional Classification
Transitive Verb
Has a direct object; action passes to someone/something.
He fired the rifle. (rifle = object) / She led the patrol.
Intransitive Verb
Has no direct object; action stops with the subject.
He ran. / The missile exploded. / She arrived. / He slept.
Linking (Copulative) Verb
Connects subject to a subject complement (adj/noun). No action.
is/am/are/was/were, seem, appear, become, feel, sound, look, remain, grow
Auxiliary Verb
Helps the main verb form tense, voice, or mood.
be (is/was), have (has/had), do (does/did) — He has submitted the report.
Modal Verb
Special auxiliaries expressing possibility, necessity, obligation.
can, could, will, would, shall, should, may, might, must, ought to, need, dare
Phrasal Verb
Verb + particle (preposition/adverb) = new meaning.
carry out (execute), call off (cancel), put up with (tolerate)
⚠ Transitive vs Intransitive — The Same Verb Can Be Both:
He ran the marathon. → Transitive (‘marathon’ is the object)
He ran quickly. → Intransitive (no object; ‘quickly’ is an adverb)
The verbs die, sleep, arrive, fall, go, come, rise, appear are always intransitive (can never have an object). They can never be made passive: ✗ The accident was happened.
C5 Types of Adverbs
ADVERB TYPES
Manner
Tells how an action is done. Usually ends in -ly.
He fought bravely. / She spoke clearly. / They marched silently.
Time
Tells when an action occurs.
He arrived yesterday. / The attack will begin soon. / She left immediately.
Place
Tells where an action occurs.
The troops assembled here. / He went forward. / She sat nearby.
Frequency
Tells how often an action occurs.
He always reports early. / She never hesitates. / He often trains late.
Degree
Tells to what extent; modifies adjectives or other adverbs.
He is extremely disciplined. / She is quite capable. / Very few passed.
Sentence Adverb
Modifies the entire sentence; expresses speaker’s attitude.
Fortunately, no casualties were reported. / Obviously, the plan worked.
C6 Types of Conjunctions & Articles
CONJUNCTION TYPES
Coordinating
Joins equal grammatical units. FANBOYS.
for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so
Subordinating
Joins a dependent clause to a main clause.
because, although, if, when, since, unless, until, before, after
Correlative
Paired conjunctions working together.
either...or, neither...nor, not only...but also, both...and
Conjunctive Adverb
Adverb used to connect two independent sentences.
however, therefore, moreover, nevertheless (needs semicolon before)
ARTICLE TYPES & DETERMINERS
Definite Article
Refers to a specific, known noun.
the — “The general gave the order.”
Indefinite Article
Refers to any one of a class; first mention.
a/an — “A soldier never retreats.”
Zero Article
No article used; with proper nouns, uncountables, plurals in general.
“∅ Courage wins battles.” / “He is ∅ Captain Arjun.”
Determiners
Words that introduce nouns: articles + this/that/my/each/every/some/any
Determiners = articles + demonstrative + possessive + distributive + quantifiers
Q11. What type of adjective is ‘every’ in: “Every recruit must clear the physical test”?
- (a) Demonstrative Adjective
- (b) Quantitative Adjective
- (c) Distributive Adjective
- (d) Possessive Adjective
Answer: (c) Distributive Adjective
(a) Wrong: demonstrative adjectives are this/that/these/those. (b) Wrong: quantitative adjectives indicate amount (some, much, little). (d) Wrong: possessive adjectives show ownership (my, his, our). (c) Correct: Distributive adjectives (each, every, either, neither) refer to each member of a group separately and individually. ‘Every recruit’ = each one individually.
Q12. Identify the type of verb in: “The patrol arrived at the forward post.”
- (a) Transitive Verb
- (b) Linking Verb
- (c) Intransitive Verb
- (d) Modal Verb
Answer: (c) Intransitive Verb
(a) Wrong: ‘arrived’ has no direct object. Ask: arrived WHAT? → no answer → not transitive. (b) Wrong: linking verbs (seem, appear, become) connect subject to a complement. (d) Wrong: no modal is present. (c) Correct: ‘Arrive’ is always intransitive; it has no direct object and cannot be made passive. ‘At the forward post’ is a prepositional phrase (adverbial), not a direct object.
Q13. In “Fortunately, the reinforcements arrived in time”, ‘fortunately’ is:
- (a) An Adverb of Manner
- (b) An Adverb of Time
- (c) A Sentence Adverb
- (d) An Adverb of Degree
Answer: (c) A Sentence Adverb
(a) Wrong: manner adverbs tell HOW an action is done (ran quickly). ‘Fortunately’ does not describe how the reinforcements arrived. (b) Wrong: time adverbs tell WHEN (yesterday, soon). (d) Wrong: degree adverbs modify adjectives/adverbs (extremely fast). (c) Correct: Sentence adverbs modify the entire sentence and express the speaker’s attitude or evaluation. They are usually placed at the start followed by a comma. Others: obviously, unfortunately, surprisingly, clearly.
Q14. What type of conjunction is ‘however’ in: “The plan was sound; however, execution was poor”?
- (a) Coordinating Conjunction
- (b) Subordinating Conjunction
- (c) Correlative Conjunction
- (d) Conjunctive Adverb
Answer: (d) Conjunctive Adverb
(a) Wrong: coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for/and/nor/but/or/yet/so) can join clauses with only a comma. ‘However’ needs a semicolon. (b) Wrong: subordinating conjunctions introduce dependent clauses. (c) Wrong: correlative conjunctions come in pairs (either...or). (d) Correct: ‘However’ is a Conjunctive Adverb — it functions as an adverb but connects two independent sentences. It always requires a semicolon before it and a comma after it.
📋 Quick Reference — Parts of Speech & Terminology
① Suffix → POS
- -tion/-ness/-ity/-ment/-ance → Noun
- -ous/-ful/-less/-al/-ible/-ic → Adjective
- -ly (mostly) → Adverb (but friendly/lovely/elderly = Adj)
- -ify/-ise/-ate/-en → Verb
② Noun Types
- Proper = specific name (Delhi, Arjun)
- Abstract = quality (courage, honour)
- Collective = group (army, fleet, jury)
- Compound = two words (headquarters)
- Countable/Uncountable = ammunition/soldiers
③ Pronoun Types (Key)
- Reflexive = himself (reflects back; remove → incomplete)
- Emphatic = himself (stress; remove → still complete)
- Impersonal IT = “It is raining” (no real subject)
- Reciprocal = each other / one another
- Distributive = each, either, neither
④ Verb Form POS Tests
- V-ing alone before noun = Participle (Adj)
- V-ing as subject/object = Gerund (Noun)
- to + V as subject/object = Infinitive (Noun)
- to + V modifying verb = Infinitive (Adverb)
- was/is + V-ing = Progressive Verb (not Adj)
⑤ Adjective vs Adverb Test
- Modifies noun/pronoun → Adjective
- Modifies verb/adj/adverb → Adverb
- -ly ≠ always adverb: friendly/lovely = Adj
- Demonstrative + noun = Adj; alone = Pronoun
- Possessive + noun = Adj; alone = Pronoun
⑥ Transitive vs Intransitive
- Transitive = has direct object (He fired the gun)
- Intransitive = no object (He arrived / ran / slept)
- Always intransitive: die, arrive, fall, rise, go
- Cannot be passive: “was happened” = WRONG
- Same verb can be both depending on use
⑦ Adverb Types
- Manner: bravely, quickly (how?)
- Time: yesterday, soon, now (when?)
- Place: here, there, forward (where?)
- Frequency: always, never, often (how often?)
- Degree: very, extremely, quite (how much?)
- Sentence: fortunately, obviously (whole sentence)
⑧ Conjunction Types
- Coordinating: FANBOYS (for/and/nor/but/or/yet/so)
- Subordinating: because/if/when/although/unless
- Correlative: either...or / neither...nor / not only...but also
- Conjunctive Adverb: however/therefore/moreover + semicolon
⚠ Hardest Distinctions
- Reflexive vs Emphatic (both = himself/herself)
- Impersonal IT vs Personal IT
- Gerund vs Participle (both end -ing)
- Preposition vs Adverb (same word: down/up/in)
- Demonstrative Pronoun vs Demonstrative Adjective
⚠ Common Wrong Answers
- ‘sleeping guard’ → not Verb; it is Adjective
- ‘to lead’ → not always Verb; check its role
- ‘friendly’ → not Adverb; it is Adjective
- ‘It is raining’ → not Personal; it is Impersonal
- ‘himself spoke’ → not Reflexive; it is Emphatic
💡 Articles
- the = definite (specific, known noun)
- a/an = indefinite (non-specific, first mention)
- Zero article = proper nouns, uncountables, plurals in general
- Article = type of Determiner
💡 Adjective Types
- Descriptive = brave, rapid, heavy
- Distributive = each, every, either, neither
- Demonstrative = this, that (before noun)
- Possessive = my, his, our (before noun)
- Proper = Indian, British (from proper noun)
- Interrogative = which, what, whose (in question)